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Look Back in Anger: Mining Communities, the Mining Novel and the Great Miners' Strike. Karl Marx Extracts from 'The British Rule in India' and 'The Future Results of British Rule in India' K. Engels, Selected Works [1969] 13. Gaylord Wilshire The Significance of the Trust Wilshire's Magazine [1901] 14. Rudolf Hilferding Extracts from 'Finance Capital: A Study of the Latest Phase of Capitalist Development' [1981] 15.

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. The Chera dynasty was one of the principal dynasties in the early history of the present day states of and and union territory of in.

Together with the and the, the early Cheras were known as one of the of ancient (southern India) in the early centuries of the Common Era. The Cheras owed their importance to exchange of spices and other products with the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) merchants.

The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to southern India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea combined to make the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India. Along with the in the south and the in the north, the early Cheras formed the three principle ruling polities of ancient Kerala. The age and antiquity of the Cheras is difficult to establish. The exact location of the Chera homeland is also a matter of scholarly debate. The early Cheras of the Sangam period (early centuries of the Common Era) are known to have established bases at various locations such as Vanchi, Karuvur, and among others.

After the end of the Sangam period, around the 5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. The bardic collection known as the mentions the names of a number of Chera rulers, and the court poets who extolled them. The internal chronology of this collection is still far from completely settled and a connected account of the history of the period is an area of active research., and are some of the rulers referred to in the Tamil literature.

Chenguttuvan Chera, the most renowned of the Early Cheras, is also famous for the traditions surrounding, the principal female character of the Tamil epic poem. Other sources for the early Cheras include rare inscriptions and coins, classical Sanskrit works and accounts by Graeco-Roman writers.

The 'Kongu' Cheras are also known to have controlled Karur Vanchi in central at various points in time. The Cheras of Makotai/Kulsekharas (former Muchiri, modern ) were in power between c. 9th and 12th century in Kerala. The exact nature of the relationships between the various lines of Chera rulers is somewhat unclear. It is known that the Cheras were intermittently subject to the and the among others.

The rulers of Venadu, based out of the port of Kollam in southern Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Kodungallur Cheras., their most ambitious ruler, set out to expand his kingdom by annexing the ruins of the other southern kingdoms. In the modern period the rulers of and (in Kerala) also claimed the title 'Chera'. Contents. Etymology The etymology of 'Chera' is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from Cheral, a corruption of Charal meaning 'declivity of a mountain' in Tamil, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala. Another theory argues that the 'Cheralam' is derived from 'cher' (sand) and 'alam' (region), literally meaning, 'the slushy land'. Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies.

In non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: 'Kerala Putra') in the Emperor 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE).

While and refer to the Cheras as Kaelobotros and Kerobottros respectively, the Graeco-Roman trade map refers to the Cheras as Keprobotras. All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of 'Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra' probably received through relations with northern India. The term Cheralamdivu or Cheran Tivu and its cognates, meaning the 'island of the Chera kings', is a Classical Tamil that takes root from the term 'Chera'. History Early Cheras (c. 3rd century BCE- 4th century ACE Recent theories on ancient south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – the, the Chera and the – based at their original bases in the interior namely, Karur/Vanchi, and respectively, had established a 'strategic outlets' to the Indian Ocean namely, Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveri Poompattinam respectively. An approximate representation of the Chera territory in the Sangam period (c.

1st - 4th century CE). The Cheras are referred as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: 'Kerala Putra') in the Emperor 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE). The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by in the 1st century CE, in the of the 1st century CE, and by in the 2nd century CE.

Greeks and Romans are called 'Yavanas' in early Indian literature. A number of Sanskrit works does mention the family and land of the Cheras/Keralas. Whether the particular references were present in the earliest oral forms or were added subsequently is a matter of considerable discourse. The present form of notes the Cherapadah as one of the three peoples who did not follow some ancient injunctions. The Aranyakas are a later development of the Brahmanas (explanations of the Vedas), which were originally composed c.

7th-8th century BCE. There are also brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator (c.

3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher (c. 2nd century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher ( c. 3rd - 4th century BCE) though Sanskrit grammarian (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either the people or the land. A large body of works collectively known as the (c. 1st - 4th century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers.

Among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the, the, and the. The Pathitrupathu, the fourth book in the anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family. Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet. However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far., and are some of the rulers referred to in the Tamil literature.

A method, known as, is used by some historians to date the events described in the Sangam literature to the c. 1st - 2nd century CE. Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the Sangam literature. Author of the legendary Tamil epic poem describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (v irakkallu) for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi. A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with, king of (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi.

In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE. Archaeological discoveries. A Chera coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet Archaeology has found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras. Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near ) dated to the c.

1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai clan. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of, and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai. A short Tamil-Brahmi inscription, containing the word 'Chera' was found at in the Western Ghats. An ancient trade route, from coastal settlements in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the Palghat Gap to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence. Historians are yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as 'Muchiri', a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at (near ) suggest a strong case of identification of the location. Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni).

A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the Amaravathi riverbed, are a major source Early Chera historiography. This include a number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravathi riverbed.

The issuing of punch marked coins were followed by square coins of copper and its alloys or silver. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras, on the obverse with or without any legend. A copper coin, with a bow and arrow, elephant goad, and elephant, was discovered from in central Kerala. A bronze die for minting punch marked coins was discovered from the riverbed in Karur. Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the legend 'Mak-kotai' above it and another one with a portrait and the legend 'Kuttuvan Kotai' above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c.

1st century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank. The impure silver coins bearing the legend 'Kollippurai' and 'Kol-Irumporai' was also discovered from Karur. All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse.

The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin. A silver coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravathi riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera dynasty. Major Cheras according to the Sangam literature. Family tree of the rulers of the Chera dynasty (c.

1st - 4th century AD). Compiled from A Survey of Kerala History (1967) by A. Sreedhara Menon. earliest known ruler of the Chera family, Uthiyan Cheral was also known as 'Vanavaramban' Cheral Athan. His headquarters was at Kuzhumur in Kuttanad. He is sometimes identified with the Chera ruler who prepared food for the warring cousins at Kurukshetra War in the epic Mahabharata (Akananuru). In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler Karikala.

Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. 'Imayavaramban' Nedum Cheral Athan, son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan, is the hero of the second decade of Pathitrupathu which was composed by the poet Kannanar. In the poems, Nedum Cheral Athan is praised for having subdued 'seven crowned kings' to achieve the title of adhiraja. With characteristic exaggeration, Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering foes from to the. Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbarkkattu. The greatest of his enemies were the whom he defeated in battles. He also attacked Yavana ships and held Yavana traders ransom.

Nedum Cheral Athan was killed in a battle with a Chola ruler. The Chola is also said to have been killed by a spear thrown at him by Nedum Cheral Athan. Subsequently both queens performed sati in respect of their husbands. Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan - son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan.

Credited as the conqueror of Kongu (hero of the third decade by Palaik Kauthamanar ). Kalankakkanni Narmudi Cheral - hero of the fourth decade by Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar, led an expedition against the Adigaiman Anji of Tagadur. Initialy defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai.

identified with 'Kadal Pirakottiya' Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan, son of Nedum Cheral Athan, celebrated by poet Paranar in the 5th decade, ascended to the Chera throne after the death of his father. Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary 'Chenguttuvan Chera', the most illustrious ruler of the early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).

Ilango Adigal, author of the epic In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur. The 'fort' of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan.

Adu Kottu Cheral Athan - successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan (hero of the sixth decade by poetess Kakkaipadiniyar Nachellaiyar). Selva Kadumko Valia Athan - Selvakadumko Valia Athan was the son of Anthuvan Cheral and the hero of the 7th set of poems composed by Kapilar. His residence was at the city of Thondi. He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the and the.

He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (c. 2nd century CE). 'Tagadur Erinta' Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur.

Celebrated by poet Arichil Kizhar in the 8th decade. He captured which was ruled by the powerful ruler Adigaman Ezhni. He is also called 'the lord of Puzhinadu and 'the lord of Kollimalai' and 'the lord of PoomPuhar'. Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor chief called Kaluval.

Illam Cheral Irumporai - (praised in the 9th decade by Perunkundur Kizhar ) Illam Cheral Irumporai defeated the Pandyas and the Cholas and brought immense wealth to his base Vanchi. Mantaran Cheral Irumporai ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil.

The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE ) captured Mantharan Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost territories. Kanaikkal Irumporai - Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned in him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation. Decline of Early Cheras. An approximate extend of Kalabhra supremacy in southern India.

After the end of the Sangam period, c. The 5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably. Little is known for certain about the Chera family during this period. Tradition tells that the Kalabhra (Kalvar ) rulers kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers in their confinement. The Kalabhras were marginalised c.

The 5th century by the rise of the and the. The were other major power in southern India. They all claim to have overrun the Cheras. A number of inscriptions mentions their victories over the kings of Cheras. Small buffer polities, such as that of the Ay-Vels, oscillated their allegiance in these period between major rulers.

By 8th century CE, Chera kingdom seems to have divided into two separate polities, one based at in central Tamil Nadu and the other one based at in Kerala. Royal inscriptions and temple grants, the major source of information about the rulers of this period, obnoxiously refer both clans as the Cheras. Identification of the Cheras in each record is a matter of major scholarly discourse. Kodungallur Cheras (Kulasekharas) (c. 9th - 12th century AD).

Thiruvanchikulam Shiva Temple in Kodungallur A line of rulers, described in royal charters and temple inscriptions as the Chera kings, are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century AD. The base of their rule was the city of Makotai/Vanchi (Sanskrit: Mahodayapura), modern. The history of Kerala during this period is an active area of scholarly research and debate.

Historians tend to identify Nayanar saint and Alwar saint with some of the earliest rulers of this kingdom. The Cheras of Kodungallur were intermittently subject to the s and the. They strategically fought battles and formed alliances with the Pandyas and the Cholas. The Chera kingdom was eventually dissolved in 12th century, and most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent. Venadu in southern Kerala was one of these daughter states. In the modern period the rulers of and (in Kerala) also claimed the title 'Chera'.

The Kodungallur Cheras (Kulasekharas) according to:. Kulashekhara Varma (c. 800–c.820 CE). Rajashekhara (c. 820–844 CE). Sthanu Ravi Varma (844–c.

885 CE). Rama Varma (c. 885–917 CE). Kota Ravi Varma (917–947 CE).

Indu Kota Varma (944–962 CE). Bhaskara Ravi Varma I (962–1019 CE). Bhaskara Ravi Varma II (979–1021 CE).

Vira Kerala (1021–c. 1028 CE). Rajasimha (c.

1028–c.1043 CE). Bhaskara Ravi Varma III (c. 1043–c.1082 CE). Ravi Rama Varma (c. 1082–1090 CE).

Rama Varma Kulashekhara (1090–1102 CE). Rama 'Rajasekhara' (c. 800–844 CE).

Sthanu Ravi 'Kulasekhara' (c. 844–883 CE). Kota Ravi 'Vijayaraga' (c. 883–913). Kota Kota 'Kerala Kesari' (c.

913–c.943 CE). Indu Kota (943–962 CE).

Bhaskara Ravi 'Manukuladitya' (962–1021). Ravi Kota 'Rajasimha' (c. 1021– c.1036 CE). Raja Raja (c.

1036–1089 CE). Ravi Rama 'Rajaditya' (c. 1036–1089 CE).

Adityan Kota 'Ranaditya' (c. 1036–1089 CE). Rama 'Kulasekhara' (1089–1122 CE) Venadu Cheras. Main article: When the Kodungallur Chera (Kulasekhara) kingdom was eventually dissolved in 12th century, most of its autonomous chiefdoms including Venad became independent. The rulers of Venadu, based out of the port of Kollam in southern Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Kodungallur Cheras.

The Venad rulers had an oscillating relationship with their powerful eastern neighbours, the Pandyas of Madurai. With Kolathunadu in northern Kerala, it remained the most significant kingdom in Kerala till the emergence of the Zamorin's of Kozhikode., the most ambitious ruler of Kollam, carried out a successful military expedition to Pandya and Chola lands in the early 14th century AD. The rulers of Venad owed their importance to exchange of spices and other products with the Middle Eastern and Chinese merchants. Venetian adventurer claimed to have visited Venad capital Kollam, a major centre of commerce and trade with East and West Asia. European colonisers arrived at Kollam the late fifteenth century, primarily in pursuit of the Indian spices and textiles. In Venad royal family, like most of other royal houses in Kerala, law of succession followed was based on matrilineal inheritance.

The eldest son of the sister of the ruling king, not his own son, had the legal right to ascend the throne after the death of the king. In the modern period, the rulers of Venad paid an annual tribute to the rulers of Madurai. By this time, the old state of Venad was divided into several autonomous collateral branches such as Trippappoor , Elayadathu, (, Desinganad , and Peraka Thavazhi. In the 18th century, (1706–1758), of the Trippappoor , successfully developed the state of. Varma routed all of major Nair nobles in Travancore, organised a standing army, defeated most of the chiefdoms in central Kerala, entered into strategic alliances with Europeans, supported Kerala traders in the place of the Europeans, and eventually formed one of the first modern states of southern India.

In the modern period the rulers of also claimed the title 'Chera'. Government Early Cheras (of Sangam period). The extend and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted neither in a linear nor in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans. The extend of political formation in the Sangam period southern India was a matter of considerable debate among historians. Although earlier historians visualised Sangam polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of state formation.

According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, the ancient south India was a combination of several 'unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms'. These polities were structured by the dominance of agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics. Reaching any conclusions based on the Sangam poems and archaeological evidences is another topic disagreement.

It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the Sangam period. Economy The Early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly 'pastoral-cum-agrarian' based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided base for larger economic change. Spice trade. (Red) and Spice Routes (Blues) Indian Ocean spice trade with the 'Yavanas' and trade with the north India provided considerable economic momentum for Chera polity. Overseas trade was the major economic activity. Chera spice exchange with the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era.

In the 1st century of the Common Era, the Romans conquered Egypt, which helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by in the 1st century CE, in of the 1st century CE, and by in the 2nd century CE. The portrays the trade in the territory of Keprobotras in detail.

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(Tamil: Muchiri) was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the periplus, abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks. Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were exported from the Chera region to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms. It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for. This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu., in the 1st century CE, laments about the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the c. 3rd-4th centuries CE.

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With the exit of the Mediterraneans in the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators. Society and culture Early Cheras In general Sangam poems reflect the Dravidian cultural tradition as well as elements of the arrival of the northern Indian/Sanskritic cultural tradition, which by now was beginning to come into contact with the Tamilakam.

It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions. Religious practise consisted predominantly in conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god. The worship of departed heroes was also a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship.

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The war goddess Kottavai was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat. It is theorised that Kottavai was assimilated into the present-day form of the goddess. It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries.

It was only in the c. 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the Chera country reached its organised form. Though the vast majority of the population followed native Dravidian practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed,. These three philosophies came from regions in northern India to the Chera territory. Populations of and were also known to have lived in Kerala. Sangam literature does make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word kudi (“group”) to denote 'caste'. A striking feature of the social life of the Sangam period is the high status accorded to women.

Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the Sangam literature. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Sangam literature is full of references about the lavish patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed poems praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this. Kodungallur Cheras (Kulasekharas).

A Kodungallur Chera (Kulasekhara) copper plate grant in Old Malayalam (Vazhappally Plates) A cultural identity different from the Tamil-speaking people in the east of Western Ghat mountains gradually emerged in Kerala in the medieval period. Oldest forms of Malayalam language also are attested in the era of Kulasekharas. Organised forms of Namboothiri-Brahmin influence in all aspects of life in Kerala also emerged during this period. A new calendar system, known as Kollam Era, is also seen in medieval Kerala. The famous philosopher, was born at on the banks of.

A multicultural and multi-ethnic society, with the presence of Jews, Christians, and Muslims, coexisted in relative peaceful conditions in Kerala. Several notable literary works in Sanskrit and Tamil were composed during this period under the patronage of the Chera rulers (who themselves indulged in authoring several works). Was centre of learning and science in medieval period.

An functioned at the capital under the charge of ( c. 900 AD), an astronomer in the court of Chera king Sthanu Ravi. Narayana is the author of Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha, a commentary on the works of Bhaskara I (early 6th century AD), a disciple of the famous polymath himself. We can find references to an instrument called 'Rashi Chakra' marked by a 'Yanthra Valaya' in Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha. This instrument might be the same as the Gola Yanthra or Chakra Yanthra mentioned by Aryabhata. The Chakra Yanthra was developed further and called Phalaka Yanthra by Bhaskara I.

It seems that arrangements had been made in the city for recording correct time and announcing it to the public from different centres by the tolling of bells at regular intervals of a ghatika (25 minutes). This practice - known as nazhikakkottu - continued until the early 15th century.

Much like of the Sangam period Cheras, Chera rulers of Kodungallur heavily depended on the spice trade for sustaining their economy. The Chera state had extensive trade relations with regions in the Middle East and China.

The region acted as connecting hub for the merchants from western and eastern parts of Asia. The important Kerala ports of this period were Panthalayani Kollam,. Arab travellers who visited the Malabar Coast during the period have testified to the high degree of economic prosperity achieved from foreign trade. A number of copper-plates charters and inscriptions testify to the high importance given to trade guilds. The intimate relations of the Chera rulers and their feudatories with Jews and Christian merchants are seen in Cochin Jewish Copper Plate (c.

1000 AD) and Tharisa Palli Copper Plates (c. See also. Timeline and cultural period Northwestern India (-) Central India Upper Gangetic Plain (-) Middle Gangetic Plain Lower Gangetic Plain Culture Late Late (Brahmin ideology) Late (Kshatriya/Shramanic culture) 6th century BC - Culture ' -5th century BC 4th century BC Culture Pre-history (300 BC – 200 AD) 3rd century BC 46 other small kingdoms in Culture Preclassical Hinduism - 'Hindu Synthesis' (ca. 200 BC - 300 AD) -(continued) (300 BC – 200 AD) 2nd century BC 46 other small kingdoms in 1st century BC 1st century AD 2nd century 3rd century kingdom Culture 'Golden Age of Hinduism'(ca. AD 320-650) Co-existence of Hinduism and Buddhism 4th century 5th century 6th century Culture Late-Classical Hinduism (ca.

AD 650-1100) - 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century.